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<h1 class="menu-title">The Rust Programming Language</h1>
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<main>
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<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
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<p><a id="traits-defining-shared-behavior"></a></p>
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<h2 id="defining-shared-behavior-with-traits"><a class="header" href="#defining-shared-behavior-with-traits">Defining Shared Behavior with Traits</a></h2>
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<p>A <em>trait</em> defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with
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other types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We
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can use <em>trait bounds</em> to specify that a generic type can be any type that has
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certain behavior.</p>
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<section class="note" aria-role="note">
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<p>Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called <em>interfaces</em> in other
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languages, although with some differences.</p>
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</section>
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<h3 id="defining-a-trait"><a class="header" href="#defining-a-trait">Defining a Trait</a></h3>
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<p>A type’s behavior consists of the methods we can call on that type. Different
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types share the same behavior if we can call the same methods on all of those
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types. Trait definitions are a way to group method signatures together to
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define a set of behaviors necessary to accomplish some purpose.</p>
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<p>For example, let’s say we have multiple structs that hold various kinds and
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||
amounts of text: a <code>NewsArticle</code> struct that holds a news story filed in a
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particular location and a <code>SocialPost</code> that can have, at most, 280 characters
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along with metadata that indicates whether it was a new post, a repost, or a
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reply to another post.</p>
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<p>We want to make a media aggregator library crate named <code>aggregator</code> that can
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display summaries of data that might be stored in a <code>NewsArticle</code> or
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<code>SocialPost</code> instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll
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request that summary by calling a <code>summarize</code> method on an instance. Listing
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10-12 shows the definition of a public <code>Summary</code> trait that expresses this
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behavior.</p>
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<figure class="listing" id="listing-10-12">
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<span class="file-name">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">pub trait Summary {
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fn summarize(&self) -> String;
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}</code></pre>
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<figcaption><a href="#listing-10-12">Listing 10-12</a>: A <code>Summary</code> trait that consists of the behavior provided by a <code>summarize</code> method</figcaption>
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</figure>
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<p>Here, we declare a trait using the <code>trait</code> keyword and then the trait’s name,
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which is <code>Summary</code> in this case. We also declare the trait as <code>pub</code> so that
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crates depending on this crate can make use of this trait too, as we’ll see in
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||
a few examples. Inside the curly brackets, we declare the method signatures
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that describe the behaviors of the types that implement this trait, which in
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this case is <code>fn summarize(&self) -> String</code>.</p>
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<p>After the method signature, instead of providing an implementation within curly
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brackets, we use a semicolon. Each type implementing this trait must provide
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its own custom behavior for the body of the method. The compiler will enforce
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that any type that has the <code>Summary</code> trait will have the method <code>summarize</code>
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defined with this signature exactly.</p>
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<p>A trait can have multiple methods in its body: The method signatures are listed
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one per line, and each line ends in a semicolon.</p>
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<h3 id="implementing-a-trait-on-a-type"><a class="header" href="#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type">Implementing a Trait on a Type</a></h3>
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<p>Now that we’ve defined the desired signatures of the <code>Summary</code> trait’s methods,
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we can implement it on the types in our media aggregator. Listing 10-13 shows
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an implementation of the <code>Summary</code> trait on the <code>NewsArticle</code> struct that uses
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the headline, the author, and the location to create the return value of
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<code>summarize</code>. For the <code>SocialPost</code> struct, we define <code>summarize</code> as the username
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followed by the entire text of the post, assuming that the post content is
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already limited to 280 characters.</p>
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<figure class="listing" id="listing-10-13">
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<span class="file-name">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
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<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground"><span class="boring">pub trait Summary {
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</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String;
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</span><span class="boring">}
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</span><span class="boring">
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</span>pub struct NewsArticle {
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pub headline: String,
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pub location: String,
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pub author: String,
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pub content: String,
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}
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impl Summary for NewsArticle {
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fn summarize(&self) -> String {
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format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
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}
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}
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pub struct SocialPost {
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pub username: String,
|
||
pub content: String,
|
||
pub reply: bool,
|
||
pub repost: bool,
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-10-13">Listing 10-13</a>: Implementing the <code>Summary</code> trait on the <code>NewsArticle</code> and <code>SocialPost</code> types</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The
|
||
difference is that after <code>impl</code>, we put the trait name we want to implement,
|
||
then use the <code>for</code> keyword, and then specify the name of the type we want to
|
||
implement the trait for. Within the <code>impl</code> block, we put the method signatures
|
||
that the trait definition has defined. Instead of adding a semicolon after each
|
||
signature, we use curly brackets and fill in the method body with the specific
|
||
behavior that we want the methods of the trait to have for the particular type.</p>
|
||
<p>Now that the library has implemented the <code>Summary</code> trait on <code>NewsArticle</code> and
|
||
<code>SocialPost</code>, users of the crate can call the trait methods on instances of
|
||
<code>NewsArticle</code> and <code>SocialPost</code> in the same way we call regular methods. The only
|
||
difference is that the user must bring the trait into scope as well as the
|
||
types. Here’s an example of how a binary crate could use our <code>aggregator</code>
|
||
library crate:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">use aggregator::{SocialPost, Summary};
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
let post = SocialPost {
|
||
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
|
||
),
|
||
reply: false,
|
||
repost: false,
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
println!("1 new post: {}", post.summarize());
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>This code prints <code>1 new post: horse_ebooks: of course, as you probably already know, people</code>.</p>
|
||
<p>Other crates that depend on the <code>aggregator</code> crate can also bring the <code>Summary</code>
|
||
trait into scope to implement <code>Summary</code> on their own types. One restriction to
|
||
note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the
|
||
type, or both, are local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard
|
||
library traits like <code>Display</code> on a custom type like <code>SocialPost</code> as part of our
|
||
<code>aggregator</code> crate functionality because the type <code>SocialPost</code> is local to our
|
||
<code>aggregator</code> crate. We can also implement <code>Summary</code> on <code>Vec<T></code> in our
|
||
<code>aggregator</code> crate because the trait <code>Summary</code> is local to our <code>aggregator</code>
|
||
crate.</p>
|
||
<p>But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t
|
||
implement the <code>Display</code> trait on <code>Vec<T></code> within our <code>aggregator</code> crate,
|
||
because <code>Display</code> and <code>Vec<T></code> are both defined in the standard library and
|
||
aren’t local to our <code>aggregator</code> crate. This restriction is part of a property
|
||
called <em>coherence</em>, and more specifically the <em>orphan rule</em>, so named because
|
||
the parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code
|
||
can’t break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could
|
||
implement the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which
|
||
implementation to use.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="default-implementations"></a></p>
|
||
<h3 id="using-default-implementations"><a class="header" href="#using-default-implementations">Using Default Implementations</a></h3>
|
||
<p>Sometimes it’s useful to have default behavior for some or all of the methods
|
||
in a trait instead of requiring implementations for all methods on every type.
|
||
Then, as we implement the trait on a particular type, we can keep or override
|
||
each method’s default behavior.</p>
|
||
<p>In Listing 10-14, we specify a default string for the <code>summarize</code> method of the
|
||
<code>Summary</code> trait instead of only defining the method signature, as we did in
|
||
Listing 10-12.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-10-14">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">pub trait Summary {
|
||
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
String::from("(Read more...)")
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub headline: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub location: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub author: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for NewsArticle {}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-10-14">Listing 10-14</a>: Defining a <code>Summary</code> trait with a default implementation of the <code>summarize</code> method</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>To use a default implementation to summarize instances of <code>NewsArticle</code>, we
|
||
specify an empty <code>impl</code> block with <code>impl Summary for NewsArticle {}</code>.</p>
|
||
<p>Even though we’re no longer defining the <code>summarize</code> method on <code>NewsArticle</code>
|
||
directly, we’ve provided a default implementation and specified that
|
||
<code>NewsArticle</code> implements the <code>Summary</code> trait. As a result, we can still call
|
||
the <code>summarize</code> method on an instance of <code>NewsArticle</code>, like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">use aggregator::{self, NewsArticle, Summary};
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span> let article = NewsArticle {
|
||
headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"),
|
||
location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
|
||
author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
|
||
hockey team in the NHL.",
|
||
),
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize());
|
||
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>This code prints <code>New article available! (Read more...)</code>.</p>
|
||
<p>Creating a default implementation doesn’t require us to change anything about
|
||
the implementation of <code>Summary</code> on <code>SocialPost</code> in Listing 10-13. The reason is
|
||
that the syntax for overriding a default implementation is the same as the
|
||
syntax for implementing a trait method that doesn’t have a default
|
||
implementation.</p>
|
||
<p>Default implementations can call other methods in the same trait, even if those
|
||
other methods don’t have a default implementation. In this way, a trait can
|
||
provide a lot of useful functionality and only require implementors to specify
|
||
a small part of it. For example, we could define the <code>Summary</code> trait to have a
|
||
<code>summarize_author</code> method whose implementation is required, and then define a
|
||
<code>summarize</code> method that has a default implementation that calls the
|
||
<code>summarize_author</code> method:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">pub trait Summary {
|
||
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;
|
||
|
||
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
<span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("@{}", self.username)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>To use this version of <code>Summary</code>, we only need to define <code>summarize_author</code>
|
||
when we implement the trait on a type:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">pub trait Summary {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
|
||
format!("@{}", self.username)
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>After we define <code>summarize_author</code>, we can call <code>summarize</code> on instances of the
|
||
<code>SocialPost</code> struct, and the default implementation of <code>summarize</code> will call the
|
||
definition of <code>summarize_author</code> that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemented
|
||
<code>summarize_author</code>, the <code>Summary</code> trait has given us the behavior of the
|
||
<code>summarize</code> method without requiring us to write any more code. Here’s what
|
||
that looks like:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">use aggregator::{self, SocialPost, Summary};
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span> let post = SocialPost {
|
||
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
|
||
),
|
||
reply: false,
|
||
repost: false,
|
||
};
|
||
|
||
println!("1 new post: {}", post.summarize());
|
||
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>This code prints <code>1 new post: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...)</code>.</p>
|
||
<p>Note that it isn’t possible to call the default implementation from an
|
||
overriding implementation of that same method.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="traits-as-parameters"></a></p>
|
||
<h3 id="using-traits-as-parameters"><a class="header" href="#using-traits-as-parameters">Using Traits as Parameters</a></h3>
|
||
<p>Now that you know how to define and implement traits, we can explore how to use
|
||
traits to define functions that accept many different types. We’ll use the
|
||
<code>Summary</code> trait we implemented on the <code>NewsArticle</code> and <code>SocialPost</code> types in
|
||
Listing 10-13 to define a <code>notify</code> function that calls the <code>summarize</code> method
|
||
on its <code>item</code> parameter, which is of some type that implements the <code>Summary</code>
|
||
trait. To do this, we use the <code>impl Trait</code> syntax, like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">pub trait Summary {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub headline: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub location: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub author: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>pub fn notify(item: &impl Summary) {
|
||
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Instead of a concrete type for the <code>item</code> parameter, we specify the <code>impl</code>
|
||
keyword and the trait name. This parameter accepts any type that implements the
|
||
specified trait. In the body of <code>notify</code>, we can call any methods on <code>item</code>
|
||
that come from the <code>Summary</code> trait, such as <code>summarize</code>. We can call <code>notify</code>
|
||
and pass in any instance of <code>NewsArticle</code> or <code>SocialPost</code>. Code that calls the
|
||
function with any other type, such as a <code>String</code> or an <code>i32</code>, won’t compile,
|
||
because those types don’t implement <code>Summary</code>.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="fixing-the-largest-function-with-trait-bounds"></a></p>
|
||
<h4 id="trait-bound-syntax"><a class="header" href="#trait-bound-syntax">Trait Bound Syntax</a></h4>
|
||
<p>The <code>impl Trait</code> syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax
|
||
sugar for a longer form known as a <em>trait bound</em>; it looks like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item: &T) {
|
||
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>This longer form is equivalent to the example in the previous section but is
|
||
more verbose. We place trait bounds with the declaration of the generic type
|
||
parameter after a colon and inside angle brackets.</p>
|
||
<p>The <code>impl Trait</code> syntax is convenient and makes for more concise code in simple
|
||
cases, while the fuller trait bound syntax can express more complexity in other
|
||
cases. For example, we can have two parameters that implement <code>Summary</code>. Doing
|
||
so with the <code>impl Trait</code> syntax looks like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn notify(item1: &impl Summary, item2: &impl Summary) {</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Using <code>impl Trait</code> is appropriate if we want this function to allow <code>item1</code> and
|
||
<code>item2</code> to have different types (as long as both types implement <code>Summary</code>). If
|
||
we want to force both parameters to have the same type, however, we must use a
|
||
trait bound, like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item1: &T, item2: &T) {</code></pre>
|
||
<p>The generic type <code>T</code> specified as the type of the <code>item1</code> and <code>item2</code>
|
||
parameters constrains the function such that the concrete type of the value
|
||
passed as an argument for <code>item1</code> and <code>item2</code> must be the same.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="specifying-multiple-trait-bounds-with-the--syntax"></a></p>
|
||
<h4 id="multiple-trait-bounds-with-the--syntax"><a class="header" href="#multiple-trait-bounds-with-the--syntax">Multiple Trait Bounds with the <code>+</code> Syntax</a></h4>
|
||
<p>We can also specify more than one trait bound. Say we wanted <code>notify</code> to use
|
||
display formatting as well as <code>summarize</code> on <code>item</code>: We specify in the <code>notify</code>
|
||
definition that <code>item</code> must implement both <code>Display</code> and <code>Summary</code>. We can do
|
||
so using the <code>+</code> syntax:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn notify(item: &(impl Summary + Display)) {</code></pre>
|
||
<p>The <code>+</code> syntax is also valid with trait bounds on generic types:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn notify<T: Summary + Display>(item: &T) {</code></pre>
|
||
<p>With the two trait bounds specified, the body of <code>notify</code> can call <code>summarize</code>
|
||
and use <code>{}</code> to format <code>item</code>.</p>
|
||
<h4 id="clearer-trait-bounds-with-where-clauses"><a class="header" href="#clearer-trait-bounds-with-where-clauses">Clearer Trait Bounds with <code>where</code> Clauses</a></h4>
|
||
<p>Using too many trait bounds has its downsides. Each generic has its own trait
|
||
bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of
|
||
trait bound information between the function’s name and its parameter list,
|
||
making the function signature hard to read. For this reason, Rust has alternate
|
||
syntax for specifying trait bounds inside a <code>where</code> clause after the function
|
||
signature. So, instead of writing this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn some_function<T: Display + Clone, U: Clone + Debug>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 {</code></pre>
|
||
<p>we can use a <code>where</code> clause, like this:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn some_function<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32
|
||
where
|
||
T: Display + Clone,
|
||
U: Clone + Debug,
|
||
{
|
||
<span class="boring"> unimplemented!()
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>This function’s signature is less cluttered: The function name, parameter list,
|
||
and return type are close together, similar to a function without lots of trait
|
||
bounds.</p>
|
||
<h3 id="returning-types-that-implement-traits"><a class="header" href="#returning-types-that-implement-traits">Returning Types That Implement Traits</a></h3>
|
||
<p>We can also use the <code>impl Trait</code> syntax in the return position to return a
|
||
value of some type that implements a trait, as shown here:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore"><span class="boring">pub trait Summary {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub headline: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub location: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub author: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn returns_summarizable() -> impl Summary {
|
||
SocialPost {
|
||
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
|
||
),
|
||
reply: false,
|
||
repost: false,
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>By using <code>impl Summary</code> for the return type, we specify that the
|
||
<code>returns_summarizable</code> function returns some type that implements the <code>Summary</code>
|
||
trait without naming the concrete type. In this case, <code>returns_summarizable</code>
|
||
returns a <code>SocialPost</code>, but the code calling this function doesn’t need to know
|
||
that.</p>
|
||
<p>The ability to specify a return type only by the trait it implements is
|
||
especially useful in the context of closures and iterators, which we cover in
|
||
Chapter 13. Closures and iterators create types that only the compiler knows or
|
||
types that are very long to specify. The <code>impl Trait</code> syntax lets you concisely
|
||
specify that a function returns some type that implements the <code>Iterator</code> trait
|
||
without needing to write out a very long type.</p>
|
||
<p>However, you can only use <code>impl Trait</code> if you’re returning a single type. For
|
||
example, this code that returns either a <code>NewsArticle</code> or a <code>SocialPost</code> with
|
||
the return type specified as <code>impl Summary</code> wouldn’t work:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile"><span class="boring">pub trait Summary {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub headline: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub location: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub author: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for NewsArticle {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}, by {} ({})", self.headline, self.author, self.location)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">pub struct SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub username: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub content: String,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub reply: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> pub repost: bool,
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">impl Summary for SocialPost {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> format!("{}: {}", self.username, self.content)
|
||
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
||
</span><span class="boring">}
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span>fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary {
|
||
if switch {
|
||
NewsArticle {
|
||
headline: String::from(
|
||
"Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!",
|
||
),
|
||
location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"),
|
||
author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
|
||
hockey team in the NHL.",
|
||
),
|
||
}
|
||
} else {
|
||
SocialPost {
|
||
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
|
||
content: String::from(
|
||
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
|
||
),
|
||
reply: false,
|
||
repost: false,
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Returning either a <code>NewsArticle</code> or a <code>SocialPost</code> isn’t allowed due to
|
||
restrictions around how the <code>impl Trait</code> syntax is implemented in the compiler.
|
||
We’ll cover how to write a function with this behavior in the <a href="ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-to-abstract-over-shared-behavior">“Using Trait
|
||
Objects to Abstract over Shared Behavior”</a><!-- ignore -->
|
||
section of Chapter 18.</p>
|
||
<h3 id="using-trait-bounds-to-conditionally-implement-methods"><a class="header" href="#using-trait-bounds-to-conditionally-implement-methods">Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods</a></h3>
|
||
<p>By using a trait bound with an <code>impl</code> block that uses generic type parameters,
|
||
we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified
|
||
traits. For example, the type <code>Pair<T></code> in Listing 10-15 always implements the
|
||
<code>new</code> function to return a new instance of <code>Pair<T></code> (recall from the <a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html#method-syntax">“Method
|
||
Syntax”</a><!-- ignore --> section of Chapter 5 that <code>Self</code> is a type
|
||
alias for the type of the <code>impl</code> block, which in this case is <code>Pair<T></code>). But
|
||
in the next <code>impl</code> block, <code>Pair<T></code> only implements the <code>cmp_display</code> method if
|
||
its inner type <code>T</code> implements the <code>PartialOrd</code> trait that enables comparison
|
||
<em>and</em> the <code>Display</code> trait that enables printing.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-10-15">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/lib.rs</span>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">use std::fmt::Display;
|
||
|
||
struct Pair<T> {
|
||
x: T,
|
||
y: T,
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl<T> Pair<T> {
|
||
fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
|
||
Self { x, y }
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
impl<T: Display + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
|
||
fn cmp_display(&self) {
|
||
if self.x >= self.y {
|
||
println!("The largest member is x = {}", self.x);
|
||
} else {
|
||
println!("The largest member is y = {}", self.y);
|
||
}
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-10-15">Listing 10-15</a>: Conditionally implementing methods on a generic type depending on trait bounds</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements
|
||
another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait
|
||
bounds are called <em>blanket implementations</em> and are used extensively in the
|
||
Rust standard library. For example, the standard library implements the
|
||
<code>ToString</code> trait on any type that implements the <code>Display</code> trait. The <code>impl</code>
|
||
block in the standard library looks similar to this code:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">impl<T: Display> ToString for T {
|
||
// --snip--
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Because the standard library has this blanket implementation, we can call the
|
||
<code>to_string</code> method defined by the <code>ToString</code> trait on any type that implements
|
||
the <code>Display</code> trait. For example, we can turn integers into their corresponding
|
||
<code>String</code> values like this because integers implement <code>Display</code>:</p>
|
||
<pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2024"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span>let s = 3.to_string();
|
||
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<p>Blanket implementations appear in the documentation for the trait in the
|
||
“Implementors” section.</p>
|
||
<p>Traits and trait bounds let us write code that uses generic type parameters to
|
||
reduce duplication but also specify to the compiler that we want the generic
|
||
type to have particular behavior. The compiler can then use the trait bound
|
||
information to check that all the concrete types used with our code provide the
|
||
correct behavior. In dynamically typed languages, we would get an error at
|
||
runtime if we called a method on a type that didn’t define the method. But Rust
|
||
moves these errors to compile time so that we’re forced to fix the problems
|
||
before our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code
|
||
that checks for behavior at runtime, because we’ve already checked at compile
|
||
time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility
|
||
of generics.</p>
|
||
|
||
</main>
|
||
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