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<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
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<p><a id="using-message-passing-to-transfer-data-between-threads"></a></p>
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<h2 id="transfer-data-between-threads-with-message-passing"><a class="header" href="#transfer-data-between-threads-with-message-passing">Transfer Data Between Threads with Message Passing</a></h2>
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<p>One increasingly popular approach to ensuring safe concurrency is message
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passing, where threads or actors communicate by sending each other messages
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containing data. Here’s the idea in a slogan from <a href="https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#concurrency">the Go language documentation</a>:
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“Do not communicate by sharing memory; instead, share memory by communicating.”</p>
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<p>To accomplish message-sending concurrency, Rust’s standard library provides an
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implementation of channels. A <em>channel</em> is a general programming concept by
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which data is sent from one thread to another.</p>
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<p>You can imagine a channel in programming as being like a directional channel of
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||
water, such as a stream or a river. If you put something like a rubber duck
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||
into a river, it will travel downstream to the end of the waterway.</p>
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<p>A channel has two halves: a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter half is
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||
the upstream location where you put the rubber duck into the river, and the
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receiver half is where the rubber duck ends up downstream. One part of your
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code calls methods on the transmitter with the data you want to send, and
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another part checks the receiving end for arriving messages. A channel is said
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to be <em>closed</em> if either the transmitter or receiver half is dropped.</p>
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<p>Here, we’ll work up to a program that has one thread to generate values and
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send them down a channel, and another thread that will receive the values and
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print them out. We’ll be sending simple values between threads using a channel
|
||
to illustrate the feature. Once you’re familiar with the technique, you could
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use channels for any threads that need to communicate with each other, such as
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a chat system or a system where many threads perform parts of a calculation and
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send the parts to one thread that aggregates the results.</p>
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<p>First, in Listing 16-6, we’ll create a channel but not do anything with it.
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Note that this won’t compile yet because Rust can’t tell what type of values we
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want to send over the channel.</p>
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<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-6">
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<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
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<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">use std::sync::mpsc;
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fn main() {
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let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
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}</code></pre>
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<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-6">Listing 16-6</a>: Creating a channel and assigning the two halves to <code>tx</code> and <code>rx</code></figcaption>
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</figure>
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<p>We create a new channel using the <code>mpsc::channel</code> function; <code>mpsc</code> stands for
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<em>multiple producer, single consumer</em>. In short, the way Rust’s standard library
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implements channels means a channel can have multiple <em>sending</em> ends that
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produce values but only one <em>receiving</em> end that consumes those values. Imagine
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multiple streams flowing together into one big river: Everything sent down any
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of the streams will end up in one river at the end. We’ll start with a single
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producer for now, but we’ll add multiple producers when we get this example
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working.</p>
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<p>The <code>mpsc::channel</code> function returns a tuple, the first element of which is the
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sending end—the transmitter—and the second element of which is the receiving
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end—the receiver. The abbreviations <code>tx</code> and <code>rx</code> are traditionally used in
|
||
many fields for <em>transmitter</em> and <em>receiver</em>, respectively, so we name our
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variables as such to indicate each end. We’re using a <code>let</code> statement with a
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pattern that destructures the tuples; we’ll discuss the use of patterns in
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<code>let</code> statements and destructuring in Chapter 19. For now, know that using a
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<code>let</code> statement in this way is a convenient approach to extract the pieces of
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the tuple returned by <code>mpsc::channel</code>.</p>
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<p>Let’s move the transmitting end into a spawned thread and have it send one
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string so that the spawned thread is communicating with the main thread, as
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shown in Listing 16-7. This is like putting a rubber duck in the river upstream
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or sending a chat message from one thread to another.</p>
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<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-7">
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<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
|
||
<pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2024">use std::sync::mpsc;
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use std::thread;
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fn main() {
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let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
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||
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thread::spawn(move || {
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let val = String::from("hi");
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tx.send(val).unwrap();
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});
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}</code></pre>
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<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-7">Listing 16-7</a>: Moving <code>tx</code> to a spawned thread and sending <code>"hi"</code></figcaption>
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</figure>
|
||
<p>Again, we’re using <code>thread::spawn</code> to create a new thread and then using <code>move</code>
|
||
to move <code>tx</code> into the closure so that the spawned thread owns <code>tx</code>. The spawned
|
||
thread needs to own the transmitter to be able to send messages through the
|
||
channel.</p>
|
||
<p>The transmitter has a <code>send</code> method that takes the value we want to send. The
|
||
<code>send</code> method returns a <code>Result<T, E></code> type, so if the receiver has already
|
||
been dropped and there’s nowhere to send a value, the send operation will
|
||
return an error. In this example, we’re calling <code>unwrap</code> to panic in case of an
|
||
error. But in a real application, we would handle it properly: Return to
|
||
Chapter 9 to review strategies for proper error handling.</p>
|
||
<p>In Listing 16-8, we’ll get the value from the receiver in the main thread. This
|
||
is like retrieving the rubber duck from the water at the end of the river or
|
||
receiving a chat message.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-8">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
|
||
<pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2024">use std::sync::mpsc;
|
||
use std::thread;
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
|
||
|
||
thread::spawn(move || {
|
||
let val = String::from("hi");
|
||
tx.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
let received = rx.recv().unwrap();
|
||
println!("Got: {received}");
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-8">Listing 16-8</a>: Receiving the value <code>"hi"</code> in the main thread and printing it</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>The receiver has two useful methods: <code>recv</code> and <code>try_recv</code>. We’re using <code>recv</code>,
|
||
short for <em>receive</em>, which will block the main thread’s execution and wait
|
||
until a value is sent down the channel. Once a value is sent, <code>recv</code> will
|
||
return it in a <code>Result<T, E></code>. When the transmitter closes, <code>recv</code> will return
|
||
an error to signal that no more values will be coming.</p>
|
||
<p>The <code>try_recv</code> method doesn’t block, but will instead return a <code>Result<T, E></code>
|
||
immediately: an <code>Ok</code> value holding a message if one is available and an <code>Err</code>
|
||
value if there aren’t any messages this time. Using <code>try_recv</code> is useful if
|
||
this thread has other work to do while waiting for messages: We could write a
|
||
loop that calls <code>try_recv</code> every so often, handles a message if one is
|
||
available, and otherwise does other work for a little while until checking
|
||
again.</p>
|
||
<p>We’ve used <code>recv</code> in this example for simplicity; we don’t have any other work
|
||
for the main thread to do other than wait for messages, so blocking the main
|
||
thread is appropriate.</p>
|
||
<p>When we run the code in Listing 16-8, we’ll see the value printed from the main
|
||
thread:</p>
|
||
<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
|
||
the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
|
||
changes in the compiler -->
|
||
<pre><code class="language-text">Got: hi
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Perfect!</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="channels-and-ownership-transference"></a></p>
|
||
<h3 id="transferring-ownership-through-channels"><a class="header" href="#transferring-ownership-through-channels">Transferring Ownership Through Channels</a></h3>
|
||
<p>The ownership rules play a vital role in message sending because they help you
|
||
write safe, concurrent code. Preventing errors in concurrent programming is the
|
||
advantage of thinking about ownership throughout your Rust programs. Let’s do
|
||
an experiment to show how channels and ownership work together to prevent
|
||
problems: We’ll try to use a <code>val</code> value in the spawned thread <em>after</em> we’ve
|
||
sent it down the channel. Try compiling the code in Listing 16-9 to see why
|
||
this code isn’t allowed.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-9">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore does_not_compile">use std::sync::mpsc;
|
||
use std::thread;
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
|
||
|
||
thread::spawn(move || {
|
||
let val = String::from("hi");
|
||
tx.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
println!("val is {val}");
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
let received = rx.recv().unwrap();
|
||
println!("Got: {received}");
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-9">Listing 16-9</a>: Attempting to use <code>val</code> after we’ve sent it down the channel</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>Here, we try to print <code>val</code> after we’ve sent it down the channel via <code>tx.send</code>.
|
||
Allowing this would be a bad idea: Once the value has been sent to another
|
||
thread, that thread could modify or drop it before we try to use the value
|
||
again. Potentially, the other thread’s modifications could cause errors or
|
||
unexpected results due to inconsistent or nonexistent data. However, Rust gives
|
||
us an error if we try to compile the code in Listing 16-9:</p>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-console">$ cargo run
|
||
Compiling message-passing v0.1.0 (file:///projects/message-passing)
|
||
error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `val`
|
||
--> src/main.rs:10:27
|
||
|
|
||
8 | let val = String::from("hi");
|
||
| --- move occurs because `val` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait
|
||
9 | tx.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
| --- value moved here
|
||
10 | println!("val is {val}");
|
||
| ^^^ value borrowed here after move
|
||
|
|
||
= note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info)
|
||
|
||
For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`.
|
||
error: could not compile `message-passing` (bin "message-passing") due to 1 previous error
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Our concurrency mistake has caused a compile-time error. The <code>send</code> function
|
||
takes ownership of its parameter, and when the value is moved the receiver
|
||
takes ownership of it. This stops us from accidentally using the value again
|
||
after sending it; the ownership system checks that everything is okay.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="sending-multiple-values-and-seeing-the-receiver-waiting"></a></p>
|
||
<h3 id="sending-multiple-values"><a class="header" href="#sending-multiple-values">Sending Multiple Values</a></h3>
|
||
<p>The code in Listing 16-8 compiled and ran, but it didn’t clearly show us that
|
||
two separate threads were talking to each other over the channel.</p>
|
||
<p>In Listing 16-10, we’ve made some modifications that will prove the code in
|
||
Listing 16-8 is running concurrently: The spawned thread will now send multiple
|
||
messages and pause for a second between each message.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-10">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground">use std::sync::mpsc;
|
||
use std::thread;
|
||
use std::time::Duration;
|
||
|
||
fn main() {
|
||
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
|
||
|
||
thread::spawn(move || {
|
||
let vals = vec![
|
||
String::from("hi"),
|
||
String::from("from"),
|
||
String::from("the"),
|
||
String::from("thread"),
|
||
];
|
||
|
||
for val in vals {
|
||
tx.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
|
||
}
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
for received in rx {
|
||
println!("Got: {received}");
|
||
}
|
||
}</code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-10">Listing 16-10</a>: Sending multiple messages and pausing between each one</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>This time, the spawned thread has a vector of strings that we want to send to
|
||
the main thread. We iterate over them, sending each individually, and pause
|
||
between each by calling the <code>thread::sleep</code> function with a <code>Duration</code> value of
|
||
one second.</p>
|
||
<p>In the main thread, we’re not calling the <code>recv</code> function explicitly anymore:
|
||
Instead, we’re treating <code>rx</code> as an iterator. For each value received, we’re
|
||
printing it. When the channel is closed, iteration will end.</p>
|
||
<p>When running the code in Listing 16-10, you should see the following output
|
||
with a one-second pause in between each line:</p>
|
||
<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
|
||
the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
|
||
changes in the compiler -->
|
||
<pre><code class="language-text">Got: hi
|
||
Got: from
|
||
Got: the
|
||
Got: thread
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>Because we don’t have any code that pauses or delays in the <code>for</code> loop in the
|
||
main thread, we can tell that the main thread is waiting to receive values from
|
||
the spawned thread.</p>
|
||
<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. -->
|
||
<p><a id="creating-multiple-producers-by-cloning-the-transmitter"></a></p>
|
||
<h3 id="creating-multiple-producers"><a class="header" href="#creating-multiple-producers">Creating Multiple Producers</a></h3>
|
||
<p>Earlier we mentioned that <code>mpsc</code> was an acronym for <em>multiple producer, single
|
||
consumer</em>. Let’s put <code>mpsc</code> to use and expand the code in Listing 16-10 to
|
||
create multiple threads that all send values to the same receiver. We can do so
|
||
by cloning the transmitter, as shown in Listing 16-11.</p>
|
||
<figure class="listing" id="listing-16-11">
|
||
<span class="file-name">Filename: src/main.rs</span>
|
||
<pre><code class="language-rust noplayground"><span class="boring">use std::sync::mpsc;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">use std::thread;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">use std::time::Duration;
|
||
</span><span class="boring">
|
||
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
||
</span> // --snip--
|
||
|
||
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
|
||
|
||
let tx1 = tx.clone();
|
||
thread::spawn(move || {
|
||
let vals = vec![
|
||
String::from("hi"),
|
||
String::from("from"),
|
||
String::from("the"),
|
||
String::from("thread"),
|
||
];
|
||
|
||
for val in vals {
|
||
tx1.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
|
||
}
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
thread::spawn(move || {
|
||
let vals = vec![
|
||
String::from("more"),
|
||
String::from("messages"),
|
||
String::from("for"),
|
||
String::from("you"),
|
||
];
|
||
|
||
for val in vals {
|
||
tx.send(val).unwrap();
|
||
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
|
||
}
|
||
});
|
||
|
||
for received in rx {
|
||
println!("Got: {received}");
|
||
}
|
||
|
||
// --snip--
|
||
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre>
|
||
<figcaption><a href="#listing-16-11">Listing 16-11</a>: Sending multiple messages from multiple producers</figcaption>
|
||
</figure>
|
||
<p>This time, before we create the first spawned thread, we call <code>clone</code> on the
|
||
transmitter. This will give us a new transmitter we can pass to the first
|
||
spawned thread. We pass the original transmitter to a second spawned thread.
|
||
This gives us two threads, each sending different messages to the one receiver.</p>
|
||
<p>When you run the code, your output should look something like this:</p>
|
||
<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant;
|
||
the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than
|
||
changes in the compiler -->
|
||
<pre><code class="language-text">Got: hi
|
||
Got: more
|
||
Got: from
|
||
Got: messages
|
||
Got: for
|
||
Got: the
|
||
Got: thread
|
||
Got: you
|
||
</code></pre>
|
||
<p>You might see the values in another order, depending on your system. This is
|
||
what makes concurrency interesting as well as difficult. If you experiment with
|
||
<code>thread::sleep</code>, giving it various values in the different threads, each run
|
||
will be more nondeterministic and create different output each time.</p>
|
||
<p>Now that we’ve looked at how channels work, let’s look at a different method of
|
||
concurrency.</p>
|
||
|
||
</main>
|
||
|
||
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<template id=fa-eye-slash><span class=fa-svg><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 640 512"><!--! Font Awesome Free 6.2.0 by @fontawesome - https://fontawesome.com License - https://fontawesome.com/license/free (Icons: CC BY 4.0, Fonts: SIL OFL 1.1, Code: MIT License) Copyright 2022 Fonticons, Inc. --><path d="M38.8 5.1C28.4-3.1 13.3-1.2 5.1 9.2S-1.2 34.7 9.2 42.9l592 464c10.4 8.2 25.5 6.3 33.7-4.1s6.3-25.5-4.1-33.7L525.6 386.7c39.6-40.6 66.4-86.1 79.9-118.4c3.3-7.9 3.3-16.7 0-24.6c-14.9-35.7-46.2-87.7-93-131.1C465.5 68.8 400.8 32 320 32c-68.2 0-125 26.3-169.3 60.8L38.8 5.1zM223.1 149.5C248.6 126.2 282.7 112 320 112c79.5 0 144 64.5 144 144c0 24.9-6.3 48.3-17.4 68.7L408 294.5c5.2-11.8 8-24.8 8-38.5c0-53-43-96-96-96c-2.8 0-5.6 .1-8.4 .4c5.3 9.3 8.4 20.1 8.4 31.6c0 10.2-2.4 19.8-6.6 28.3l-90.3-70.8zm223.1 298L373 389.9c-16.4 6.5-34.3 10.1-53 10.1c-79.5 0-144-64.5-144-144c0-6.9 .5-13.6 1.4-20.2L83.1 161.5C60.3 191.2 44 220.8 34.5 243.7c-3.3 7.9-3.3 16.7 0 24.6c14.9 35.7 46.2 87.7 93 131.1C174.5 443.2 239.2 480 320 480c47.8 0 89.9-12.9 126.2-32.5z"/></svg></span></template>
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<template id=fa-copy><span class=fa-svg><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 512 512"><!--! Font Awesome Free 6.2.0 by @fontawesome - https://fontawesome.com License - https://fontawesome.com/license/free (Icons: CC BY 4.0, Fonts: SIL OFL 1.1, Code: MIT License) Copyright 2022 Fonticons, Inc. --><path d="M502.6 70.63l-61.25-61.25C435.4 3.371 427.2 0 418.7 0H255.1c-35.35 0-64 28.66-64 64l.0195 256C192 355.4 220.7 384 256 384h192c35.2 0 64-28.8 64-64V93.25C512 84.77 508.6 76.63 502.6 70.63zM464 320c0 8.836-7.164 16-16 16H255.1c-8.838 0-16-7.164-16-16L239.1 64.13c0-8.836 7.164-16 16-16h128L384 96c0 17.67 14.33 32 32 32h47.1V320zM272 448c0 8.836-7.164 16-16 16H63.1c-8.838 0-16-7.164-16-16L47.98 192.1c0-8.836 7.164-16 16-16H160V128H63.99c-35.35 0-64 28.65-64 64l.0098 256C.002 483.3 28.66 512 64 512h192c35.2 0 64-28.8 64-64v-32h-47.1L272 448z"/></svg></span></template>
|
||
<template id=fa-play><span class=fa-svg><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 384 512"><!--! Font Awesome Free 6.2.0 by @fontawesome - https://fontawesome.com License - https://fontawesome.com/license/free (Icons: CC BY 4.0, Fonts: SIL OFL 1.1, Code: MIT License) Copyright 2022 Fonticons, Inc. --><path d="M73 39c-14.8-9.1-33.4-9.4-48.5-.9S0 62.6 0 80V432c0 17.4 9.4 33.4 24.5 41.9s33.7 8.1 48.5-.9L361 297c14.3-8.7 23-24.2 23-41s-8.7-32.2-23-41L73 39z"/></svg></span></template>
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